The discovery of a previously unknown reaction pathway for the formation of urea has shed new light on the origins of life. A research team led by Ruth Signorell, Professor of Physical Chemistry at ETH Zurich, has made this groundbreaking finding, which has been published in the journal Science.

Until now, the industrial production of urea required high pressures and temperatures or chemical catalysts. However, enzymes enable the same reaction to take place in humans and animals, removing toxic ammonia from the breakdown of proteins such as urea. As this simple molecule contains nitrogen as well as carbon and probably existed on the uninhabited Early Earth, many researchers view urea as a possible precursor for complex biomolecules.

Signorell’s team studied tiny water droplets, such as those found in sea spray and fine mist. The researchers observed that urea can form spontaneously from carbon dioxide (CO2) and ammonia (NH₃) in the surface layer of the droplets under ambient conditions. This remarkable reaction takes place without any external energy supply.

The physical interface between air and liquid creates a special chemical environment at the water surface that makes the spontaneous reaction possible. Chemical concentration gradients form in this area, which acts like a microscopic reactor. The pH gradient across the interfacial layer of the water droplets creates the required acidic environment, which opens unconventional pathways that would otherwise not take place in liquids.

The results suggest that this natural reaction could also have been possible in the atmosphere of the Early Earth — an atmosphere that was rich in CO2 and probably contained small traces of ammonia. In such environments, aqueous aerosols or fog droplets could have acted as natural reactors in which precursor molecules such as urea were formed.

In the long term, the direct reaction of CO2 and ammonia under ambient conditions could also have potential for the climate-friendly production of urea and downstream products. This study opens a new window into the early days of the Earth and provides valuable insights into processes that could be significant for evolution.

The discovery of this spontaneous reaction pathway has significant implications for our understanding of the origins of life. It suggests that seemingly mundane interfaces can become dynamic reaction spaces, and biological molecules may have a more common origin than was previously thought.

The deep-sea mining industry is planning to extract valuable resources from the remote Clarion Clipperton Zone (CCZ) in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. However, new research has raised alarming concerns about the impact this activity could have on ocean life, including whales and dolphins.

A team of researchers from the University of Exeter conducted two studies, which found that the CCZ is home to a diverse range of marine species, including an endangered sperm whale. The studies highlight the urgent need for assessing the risks associated with deep-sea mining in these ecosystems.

“We know remarkably little about these ecosystems, which are hundreds of miles offshore and include very deep waters,” said Dr. Kirsten Young, one of the researchers involved in the study. “Many species here are long-lived and slow-growing, especially on the seabed. It’s very hard to predict how seabed mining might affect these species and wider ecosystems, and these risks must urgently be assessed.”

One of the research papers reviews noise sensitivity among species known to live in the CCZ. The results show that only 35% of taxonomic classes there have been studied for noise impacts. Soniferous fish, which rely on acoustic communication, are particularly vulnerable to noise. Chronic exposure to mining noise might have cascading ecological consequences, disrupting key behaviors, the researchers say.

The second study is a survey of whales and dolphins conducted from the Greenpeace vessel Arctic Sunrise. Over 13 days of visual and acoustic monitoring, there were 74 acoustic detections and six sightings. These included a sperm whale, Risso’s dolphins, common dolphins, and 70 dolphin groups that could not be identified to species level.

Dr. Young emphasized that if deep seabed mining becomes a reality, whales and dolphins will be exposed to multiple sources of noise throughout the water column. Many species are highly sensitive to certain frequencies – chronic ocean noise can mask social and foraging communications, and whales could be displaced from critical habitats.

“The behavior and impact of sediment plumes created by mining is also poorly understood but could affect food webs,” Dr. Young added.

Louisa Casson of Greenpeace International stated, “The confirmed presence of cetaceans, including threatened sperm whales, in areas that The Metals Company is targeting for deep sea mining is yet another clear warning that this dangerous industry must never be allowed to begin commercial operations.”

The two research papers are published in the Marine Pollution Bulletin and Frontiers in Marine Science, respectively. They provide a compelling argument for why deep-sea mining should not proceed without further consideration of its potential impacts on marine ecosystems and the species that inhabit them.

The discovery of killer whales using seaweed tools for grooming has left scientists stunned. For the first time, researchers have observed this behavior in an endangered population of resident killer whales living in the Salish Sea, which is part of the Pacific Ocean between British Columbia and Washington.

According to Dr. Michael Weiss, a whale expert from the Center for Whale Research in Friday Harbor, WA, the southern resident killer whales regularly use lengths of bull kelp during social interactions as a tool to groom one another. This behavior was observed across all social groups, both sexes, and all age classes, with the whales creating tools by breaking off the ends of bull kelp stalks.

“We were amazed to find that the whales not only used but also manufactured these tools,” says Dr. Weiss. “What’s more remarkable is that despite this being a common behavior, it hadn’t been discovered in this population despite nearly 50 years of dedicated observation.”

The researchers found that whales were more likely to groom closely related whales or similarly aged partners. They also observed some evidence that whales with more molting or dead skin were more likely to engage in grooming, suggesting it may have a hygienic function.

“This finding highlights yet another way these whales’ society and culture is unique,” says Dr. Weiss. “The importance of recovering the southern resident killer whale population cannot be overstated.”

This research has significant implications for our understanding of tool use in marine mammals and demonstrates that tools can be used in a wide array of contexts.

“The discovery of this behavior opens new avenues for understanding tool use in marine mammals,” says Dr. Weiss. “It also underscores the importance of continued observation and monitoring of these incredible animals.”

The study was supported by several organizations, including the UK Natural Environment Research Council, the Orca Fund, and the Wild Fish Conservancy.

As scientists continue to learn more about this fascinating behavior, it’s clear that there is still much to discover about these intelligent and social creatures.