Memory formation is one of the brain’s most fundamental and complex functions, yet the microscopic mechanisms behind it remain poorly understood. Recent research has highlighted the importance of biochemical reactions occurring at postsynaptic densities – specialized areas where neurons connect and communicate. These tiny junctions between brain cells are now thought to be crucial sites where proteins need to organize in specific ways to facilitate learning and memory formation.

A 2021 study revealed that memory-related proteins can bind together to form droplet-like structures at postsynaptic densities, which scientists believe may be fundamental to how our brains create lasting memories. However, understanding exactly how and why such complex protein arrangements form has remained a significant challenge in neuroscience.

Against this backdrop, a research team led by Researcher Vikas Pandey from the International Center for Brain Science (ICBS), Fujita Health University, Japan, has developed an innovative computational model that reproduces these intricate protein structures. Their paper, published online in Cell Reports on April 07, 2025, explores the mechanisms behind the formation of multilayered protein condensates.

The researchers focused on four proteins found at synapses, with special attention to Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) – a protein particularly abundant in postsynaptic densities. Using computational modeling techniques, they simulated how these proteins interact and organize themselves under various conditions. Their model successfully reproduced the formation of the above-mentioned “droplet-inside-droplet” structures observed in earlier experiments.

Through simulations and detailed analyses of the physical forces and chemical interactions involved, the research team shed light on a process called liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS); it involves proteins spontaneously organizing into condensates without membranes that sometimes resemble the organelles found inside cells. Crucially, the researchers found that the distinctive “droplet-inside-droplet” structure appears as a result of competitive binding between the proteins and is significantly influenced by the shape of CaMKII, specifically its high valency (number of binding sites) and short linker length.

These findings could pave the way toward a better understanding of the possible mechanisms of memory formation in humans. However, the long-term implications of this research extend well beyond basic neuroscience. Defects in synapse formation have been associated with numerous neurological and mental health conditions, including schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, Down syndrome, and Rett syndrome.

“Our results revealed new structure-function relationships between proteins at synapses,” said Dr. Pandey. “We hope that our findings will contribute to the development of novel therapeutic strategies for these devastating diseases.”

The project received funding from various organizations, including the Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), JSPS KAKENHI, Kobayashi foundation, ISHIZUE2024 of Kyoto University, Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research JP18H05434, and others.

References:

* Pandey, V., et al. (2025). Unraveling memory formation: A computational model reveals new insights into protein structures at synapses. Cell Reports.
* Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT). (n.d.). Research Grants JP18H05434 and JP20K21462.

In the vast and mysterious world of marine ecosystems, researchers have discovered that certain microorganisms have evolved an extraordinary ability to thrive in extremely harsh environments. A team of scientists from Bremen and Taiwan has investigated the methods used by these microorganisms at hydrothermal vents, shallow waters off the island of Kueishantao, Taiwan. Their study, published in Biogeosciences, reveals a remarkable secret weapon employed by these microbes during metabolism.

Hydrothermal vents are unique ecosystems that exist in shallow marine waters, where hot and acidic water rises from the Earth’s interior. These systems are usually the only energy source in the deep sea because photosynthesis is not possible in the dark depths. The researchers have found that hydrothermal vents also occur in coastal regions, such as near the volcanic island of Kueishantao in eastern Taiwan.

The conditions at these shallow-water vents are extreme, with super-heated and highly acidic water altering the seawater chemistry. Despite these harsh conditions, microorganisms like Campylobacteria thrive in this environment. The “secret weapon” employed by these microbes is the reductive tricarboxylic acid (rTCA) cycle, a biochemical pathway that allows them to transfer carbon into organic molecules and biomass with greater efficiency than other cycles.

“This secret weapon makes it possible for Campylobacteria and other microorganisms to predominate in this extreme environment,” explains Joely Maak, first author of the study. The researchers have used isotope analysis to track the fixed carbon even into crabs that live in these ecosystems, a transfer that could not be detected before.

This study is part of research within the Cluster “The Ocean Floor — Earth’s Uncharted Interface.” The main objective is to gain a better understanding of ocean-floor ecosystems under changing environmental conditions and material cycles. The findings have significant implications for our understanding of marine ecosystems and the potential impact of climate change on these delicate systems.

Researchers at the University of Iowa have made an important discovery that highlights the potential link between urinary incontinence and cardiovascular disease in women. The study, led by Dr. Lisa VanWiel, assistant professor at the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, aimed to investigate whether this common condition could contribute to a decline in physical activity, which is a known risk factor for various health issues, including cardiovascular disease.

The research team analyzed medical records from over 20,000 female patients in the Hartford Healthcare system in Connecticut. Of those patients, about 5.4% reported experiencing urinary incontinence through a questionnaire. Interestingly, the study found that respondents with urinary incontinence did not report engaging in less physical activity than those without the condition.

However, an association was discovered between patients with urinary incontinence and cardiovascular disease risk factors or events, such as high cholesterol (dyslipidemia), type 2 diabetes, and stroke. The study authors concluded that there is a link between incontinence and cardiovascular disease risk. They recommend that women should be screened regularly for incontinence, as it may contribute to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

The study’s findings emphasize the importance of addressing urinary incontinence as a potential indicator of underlying health issues. By identifying this association, healthcare providers can take proactive steps to educate and screen women for both conditions, ultimately improving overall health outcomes.