The discovery of a skeleton in a Roman cemetery in York has provided the first archaeological evidence of gladiatorial combat between humans and lions. The bite marks found on the skeleton confirm that it was a gladiator who fought against a lion, providing a rare glimpse into the lives of these ancient fighters.

Malin Holst, a lecturer in Osteoarchaeology at the University of York, led the research team that made this groundbreaking discovery. She explained that the bite marks were likely made by a lion, which confirms that the skeletons buried at the cemetery were gladiators rather than soldiers or slaves.

“This is the final piece of evidence from work that began in 2004,” said Holst. “We have been excavating and analyzing human remains from the Roman cemetery on Driffield Terrace, and this discovery provides a unique insight into the lives of these ancient fighters.”

The skeleton was buried with two others, and overlaid with horse bones. In life, it appears to have had some issues with its spine that may have been caused by overloading to its back, inflammation of its lung and thigh, as well as malnutrition as a child, which he recovered from.

The lion bite wound — confirmed by comparing it to sample bites from a lion at a zoo — was not healed and is therefore likely to have been his cause of death. It is believed that the individual was decapitated after death, which appears to have been a ritual for some individuals in the Roman period, although the reasons for this remain unclear.

Analysis of the skeleton points towards this being a Bestarius, a gladiator role undertaken by volunteers or slaves.

The discovery has significant implications for our understanding of Roman entertainment culture. It was previously thought that gladiatorial combat only took place in major cities like Rome, but this find suggests that it was also practiced in smaller cities and towns throughout the empire.

“We often have a mental image of these combats occurring at the grand surroundings of the Colosseum in Rome,” said Holst, “but these latest findings show that these sporting events had a far reach, well beyond the centre of core Roman territories.”

York appears to have held gladiator arena events until as late as the fourth century AD. The presence of distinguished Roman leaders in York would have meant they required a lavish social life, and it is not surprising to see evidence of gladiator events, as well as such an extensive burial site for them.

The research team’s findings were published in the Journal of Science and Medical Research PLoS One, and are a collaboration between the University of York, Maynooth University, Cranfield University, Durham University, King’s College London, York Archaeology, and York Osteoarchaeology Ltd.

The study reveals that three consecutive years of drought contributed to the ‘Barbarian Conspiracy’, a pivotal moment in the history of Roman Britain. Researchers argue that peripheral tribes took advantage of famine and societal breakdown caused by an extreme period of drought to inflict crushing blows on weakened Roman defences in 367 CE.

The researchers used oak tree-ring records to reconstruct temperature and precipitation levels in southern Britain during and after the ‘Barbarian Conspiracy’. They found that southern Britain experienced an exceptional sequence of remarkably dry summers from 364 to 366 CE, with average monthly reconstructed rainfall in the main growing season (April-July) falling to just 29mm in 364 CE.

The drought-driven grain deficits would have reduced the grain supply to Hadrian’s Wall, providing a plausible motive for the rebellion there which allowed the Picts into northern Britain. The study suggests that given the crucial role of grain in the contract between soldiers and the army, grain deficits may have contributed to other desertions in this period.

The researchers argue that military and societal breakdown in Roman Britain provided an ideal opportunity for peripheral tribes, including the Picts, Scotti, and Saxons, to invade the province en masse with the intention of raiding rather than conquest. Their finding that the most severe conditions were restricted to southern Britain undermines the idea that famines in other provinces might have forced these tribes to invade.

Ultimately, the researchers argue that extreme climate conditions lead to hunger, which can lead to societal challenges, and eventually outright conflict. The relationship between climate and conflict is becoming increasingly clear in our own time, making these findings relevant not only for historians but also for policymakers and researchers today.

In the depths of the last Ice Age, humans relied heavily on fire to survive. Whether for cooking, heating, or social gatherings, fire was an essential tool that played a crucial role in the daily lives of hunter-gatherers. However, despite its importance, surprisingly little well-preserved evidence of fire use has been found from the coldest period of the Ice Age in Europe.

A team of scientists led by the University of Algarve and the University of Vienna has now shed some light on this mystery through an analysis of three hearths at a prehistoric site in Ukraine. The results, published in the journal Geoarchaeology, show that people during the last Ice Age built different types of hearths and used mainly wood, but possibly also bones and fat, to fuel their fires.

The discovery is significant because it reveals a sophisticated mastery of pyrotechnics even in the face of extreme environmental stresses. The analysis shows that humans reached temperatures of more than 600°C, which was possible through careful control and management of fire. This suggests that hunter-gatherers not only used fire for warmth but also as a tool for cooking, making tools, and social gatherings.

One of the most interesting findings is that the three hearths are open and flat, with one being larger and thicker than the others. This suggests that higher temperatures were achieved in this particular fireplace, possibly indicating that people knew how to use fire in different ways depending on its purpose. The analysis also shows that humans used wood as their main fuel during the peak of the Ice Age, with charcoal analyses indicating spruce wood.

The study’s lead author, William Murphree, a geoarchaeologist at the University of Algarve, notes that despite these new findings, the small number of fireplaces from the Last Glacial Maximum remains puzzling. “Was most of the evidence destroyed by the ice-age-typical, alternating freezing and thawing of the soil?” he asks. “Or did people not find enough fuel during the Last Glacial Maximum? Did they not use fire, but instead relied on other technological solutions?”

By further uncovering the role of fire in human evolution, researchers hope to shed light on what is arguably one of the most fundamental technologies that has shaped our species’ success in populating every corner of this planet. The discovery highlights the importance of continued research into the past, and the many secrets that still remain hidden in the archaeological record.