The world’s transition to electric vehicles is driving demand for lithium, a crucial mineral used in lightweight and powerful lithium-ion batteries. A recent analysis from the University of California, Davis, has shed light on how new mining operations and battery recycling could meet this growing demand. Recycling, it turns out, plays a significant role in easing supply constraints.

“Batteries are an enormous new source of demand for lithium,” says Alissa Kendall, Ray B. Krone endowed professor of Environmental Engineering at UC Davis and senior author on the paper. “Global demand for lithium has risen dramatically – by 30% between 2022 and 2023 alone – as adoption of electric vehicles continues.”

Previous research has focused on forecasting cumulative demand over the next 30 years compared to what is known to be in the ground, says graduate student Pablo Busch, first author on the paper. However, opening a new lithium mine is a potentially billion-dollar investment that could take 10 to 15 years to begin production.

New mining proposals can be delayed or cancelled by environmental regulations and local opposition. “It’s not just about having enough lithium; it’s how fast you can extract it,” Busch notes. “Any supply disruption will slow down electric vehicle adoption, reducing mobility access and extending the operation of combustion engine vehicles and their associated carbon emissions.”

There are three main sources of usable lithium: briny water from deep underground; rocks; and sedimentary clays. Half the world’s lithium currently comes from Australia, where it is mostly mined from rock. The United States has lithium-rich brine in geothermal areas and oilfields, as well as lithium-bearing clay.

A fourth source of lithium – recycling old batteries – is still a relatively expensive process compared to mining, Kendall notes. However, modeling supply and demand shows that recycling could dramatically reduce the need for new mines. Under high-demand scenarios, up to 85 new and additional lithium deposits would need to be opened by 2050. But through policies that push the market toward smaller batteries and extensive global recycling, this number could be reduced to as few as 15 new mines.

Battery recycling has an outsize effect on the market, the researchers say. “Recycling is really important for geopolitical and environmental reasons,” Kendall notes. “If you can meet a small percentage of demand with recycling, it can have a big impact on the need for new mines.”

Timing is everything; some new mines need to open to create a flow of lithium that can be recycled. Depending on the demand scenario, recycling would make the biggest difference around 2035.

Efficiency standards for electric cars and improvements to the public charging network to reduce “range anxiety” could also moderate lithium demand by encouraging smaller cars. Additional authors include Yunzhu Chen and Prosper Ogbonna, both at UC Davis, with funding from the Heising-Simons Foundation and the ClimateWorks Foundation.

Unveiling Electron Secrets: A Groundbreaking Experiment on the Bound Electron g-Factor in Lithium-Like Tin

Physicists at the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics have achieved a groundbreaking experiment that pushes the limits of precision measurement. By studying the bound electron g-factor in lithium-like tin, they have made an unprecedented leap forward in our understanding of quantum electrodynamics (QED). This fundamental theory describes all electromagnetic phenomena, including light and its interactions with matter.

The researchers’ goal was to test QED’s predictions even more rigorously than ever before. They employed an enhanced interelectronic QED method, incorporating effects up to the two-loop level, which has led to a 25-fold improvement over previous calculations for the g-factor in hydrogen-like systems.

To measure the g-factor of the bound electron in lithium-like tin, the scientists utilized the cryogenic Penning trap ALPHATRAP. This sophisticated device allows precise control over the ion’s motion and spin precession. By detecting small electric signals induced by the ion’s movement and sending microwave radiation to induce spin flips, they extracted the g-factor value with remarkable accuracy.

The experimental result agrees well with the theoretical prediction within the uncertainty of the calculation. The overall accuracy achieved is 0.5 parts per billion, showcasing the precision of this experiment. This breakthrough demonstrates that scientists can continue to test QED’s predictions and push the boundaries of human knowledge in understanding the fundamental forces of nature.

The researchers’ findings have significant implications for the development of new theories and models. They demonstrate that even more precise measurements are possible with advancements in technology and theory. As a result, this experiment sets the stage for further investigations into QED phenomena, such as parity non-conserving transitions in neutral atoms and other effects.

In conclusion, this groundbreaking experiment on the bound electron g-factor in lithium-like tin has pushed the limits of precision measurement, providing new insights into QED’s predictions. The scientists’ dedication to collaborative research and innovative techniques has led to a significant leap forward in our understanding of quantum mechanics and its interactions with matter.

The research team at Cornell University has conducted a comprehensive study on the performance of all-electric buses in the northeastern United States. The findings have significant implications for cities, schools, and other groups considering the electrification of their fleets, as well as operators, policymakers, and manufacturers.

Tompkins Consolidated Area Transit (TCAT) in Ithaca faced issues with the manufacturers of the buses, which struggled in the area’s hilly terrain. Furthermore, the electric buses experienced reduced range and were unreliable during cold weather, consuming 48% more energy between 25 to 32 degrees Fahrenheit and nearly 27% more in a broader temperature range (10 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit).

The researchers analyzed two years of data and quantified the increased energy consumption of the pilot fleet. They found that half of the increased consumption in cold weather came from the batteries’ need to heat themselves. Batteries operate at an optimal temperature of around 75 degrees Fahrenheit, and the colder the battery is when the bus starts, the more energy it takes to warm it.

Another main culprit was the heating of the bus’s cabin. With frequent stops on urban routes where the doors are opened and closed every few minutes, the batteries must work harder to heat the cabins. The researchers also found that regenerative braking, whereby the battery recharges by capturing energy during braking, was less efficient in cold weather.

To improve the batteries’ function, short-term strategies include storing the buses indoors when not in use, so the ambient temperature is warmer; charging the batteries when they’re still warm; and limiting the length of time the bus doors are open at stops.