Rewritten Article:

In the highlands of Peru, two thousand years before the Inca empire rose to power, a lesser-known society known as the Chavín Phenomenon flourished. This enigmatic culture left behind a rich legacy of art, architecture, and materials that spanned modern-day Peru. Through innovative agriculture, craft production, and trade, Chavín built a growing social order and laid the foundations for hierarchical societies among the Andes’ highest peaks.

But one of their most powerful tools wasn’t farming – it was access to altered states of consciousness. A recent study has uncovered the earliest-known direct evidence of psychoactive plant use in the Peruvian Andes, shedding light on the ritualistic practices that shaped this ancient society.

Researchers from the University of Florida, Stanford University, and South American institutions discovered ancient snuff tubes carved from hollow bones at the heart of monumental stone structures at Chavín de Huántar, a prehistoric ceremonial site. By conducting chemical and microscopic analyses, they revealed traces of nicotine from wild relatives of tobacco and vilca bean residue, a hallucinogen related to DMT.

These substances were not used for personal visions but as part of tightly controlled rituals that reinforced the social hierarchy. Unlike communal hallucinogenic use common in other ancient cultures, Chavín’s rituals were exclusive, with snuff tubes found in private chambers within massive stone structures that held only a handful of participants at a time.

“Taking psychoactives was not just about seeing visions,” said Daniel Contreras, Ph.D., an anthropological archaeologist at UF and co-author of the study. “It was part of a tightly controlled ritual, likely reserved for a select few, reinforcing the social hierarchy.”

These experiences were likely profound and even terrifying, with the supernatural world feeling like a force beyond comprehension. By controlling access to these altered states, Chavín’s rulers established a potent ideology that convinced their people that their leadership was intertwined with mystical power and part of the natural order.

The study also uncovered trumpets made from conch shells and chambers seemingly designed to enhance awe-inducing musical performances. These rituals extended beyond the use of psychedelics, creating immersive experiences that reinforced belief systems and social structures.

“One of the ways that inequality was justified or naturalized was through ideology – through the creation of impressive ceremonial experiences that made people believe this whole project was a good idea,” Contreras said.

Their study, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, helps solve a century-old mystery about this site. Since its first excavation over a hundred years ago, Chavín has been seen as related to both earlier, more egalitarian societies and the mountain-spanning empires ruled by powerful elites that came later.

Controlled access to mystical experiences explains this major social transition, a finding only made possible by decades of intense excavations and advanced analytical methods. As Contreras noted, “It’s exciting that ongoing excavations can be combined with cutting-edge archaeological science techniques to get us closer to understanding what it was like to live at this site.”

The discovery of a skeleton in a Roman cemetery in York has provided the first archaeological evidence of gladiatorial combat between humans and lions. The bite marks found on the skeleton confirm that it was a gladiator who fought against a lion, providing a rare glimpse into the lives of these ancient fighters.

Malin Holst, a lecturer in Osteoarchaeology at the University of York, led the research team that made this groundbreaking discovery. She explained that the bite marks were likely made by a lion, which confirms that the skeletons buried at the cemetery were gladiators rather than soldiers or slaves.

“This is the final piece of evidence from work that began in 2004,” said Holst. “We have been excavating and analyzing human remains from the Roman cemetery on Driffield Terrace, and this discovery provides a unique insight into the lives of these ancient fighters.”

The skeleton was buried with two others, and overlaid with horse bones. In life, it appears to have had some issues with its spine that may have been caused by overloading to its back, inflammation of its lung and thigh, as well as malnutrition as a child, which he recovered from.

The lion bite wound — confirmed by comparing it to sample bites from a lion at a zoo — was not healed and is therefore likely to have been his cause of death. It is believed that the individual was decapitated after death, which appears to have been a ritual for some individuals in the Roman period, although the reasons for this remain unclear.

Analysis of the skeleton points towards this being a Bestarius, a gladiator role undertaken by volunteers or slaves.

The discovery has significant implications for our understanding of Roman entertainment culture. It was previously thought that gladiatorial combat only took place in major cities like Rome, but this find suggests that it was also practiced in smaller cities and towns throughout the empire.

“We often have a mental image of these combats occurring at the grand surroundings of the Colosseum in Rome,” said Holst, “but these latest findings show that these sporting events had a far reach, well beyond the centre of core Roman territories.”

York appears to have held gladiator arena events until as late as the fourth century AD. The presence of distinguished Roman leaders in York would have meant they required a lavish social life, and it is not surprising to see evidence of gladiator events, as well as such an extensive burial site for them.

The research team’s findings were published in the Journal of Science and Medical Research PLoS One, and are a collaboration between the University of York, Maynooth University, Cranfield University, Durham University, King’s College London, York Archaeology, and York Osteoarchaeology Ltd.

The study reveals that three consecutive years of drought contributed to the ‘Barbarian Conspiracy’, a pivotal moment in the history of Roman Britain. Researchers argue that peripheral tribes took advantage of famine and societal breakdown caused by an extreme period of drought to inflict crushing blows on weakened Roman defences in 367 CE.

The researchers used oak tree-ring records to reconstruct temperature and precipitation levels in southern Britain during and after the ‘Barbarian Conspiracy’. They found that southern Britain experienced an exceptional sequence of remarkably dry summers from 364 to 366 CE, with average monthly reconstructed rainfall in the main growing season (April-July) falling to just 29mm in 364 CE.

The drought-driven grain deficits would have reduced the grain supply to Hadrian’s Wall, providing a plausible motive for the rebellion there which allowed the Picts into northern Britain. The study suggests that given the crucial role of grain in the contract between soldiers and the army, grain deficits may have contributed to other desertions in this period.

The researchers argue that military and societal breakdown in Roman Britain provided an ideal opportunity for peripheral tribes, including the Picts, Scotti, and Saxons, to invade the province en masse with the intention of raiding rather than conquest. Their finding that the most severe conditions were restricted to southern Britain undermines the idea that famines in other provinces might have forced these tribes to invade.

Ultimately, the researchers argue that extreme climate conditions lead to hunger, which can lead to societal challenges, and eventually outright conflict. The relationship between climate and conflict is becoming increasingly clear in our own time, making these findings relevant not only for historians but also for policymakers and researchers today.