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Animals

Sugar-Based Sensors Revolutionize Snake Venom Detection

Researchers have published the first example of a synthetic sugar detection test for snake venom, offering a new route to rapid diagnosis and better antivenoms.

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The detection of snake venom is a crucial step in treating life-threatening snake bites. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), every five minutes, 50 people are bitten by a snake worldwide, resulting in four permanent disabilities and one death. Traditional methods for diagnosing snake venom rely on antibodies, which have limitations such as high costs, lengthy procedures, and inconsistencies.

Researchers at the University of Warwick have made a groundbreaking discovery that could revolutionize snake venom detection. They have developed a glycopolymer-based ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) test to detect Western Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox) venom. This new assay is a cheap and rapid alternative to antibody-based approaches, showcasing a version that specifically detects Crotalus atrox venom.

Dr. Alex Baker, lead researcher of the Baker Humanitarian Chemistry Group, explained that snake venoms are complex, making it challenging to detect toxins in the body. However, their research has produced an assay using synthetic sugars that mimic the natural sugar receptors targeted by venom proteins. The team engineered synthetic chains of sugar-like units (glycopolymers) attached to gold nanoparticles to amplify the response and make the reaction visible.

The Western Diamondback Rattlesnake venom binds to specific sugar molecules on red blood cells and platelets, disrupting blood clotting or interfering with immune responses leading to disability and death. The new assay changes color when venom toxins bind to the synthetic sugars, providing a rapid and cheap detection method beyond antibody-based techniques.

Mahdi Hezwani, first author of the research paper, emphasized that this assay could be a game-changer for snake envenomation. The team tested venom from other snake species, such as the Indian Cobra (Naja naja), and found that it did not interact with glycans in the body. This suggests that the new assay may have potential to distinguish between different snake venoms based on their sugar-binding properties.

This is the first example of a diagnosis test using sugars for detecting snake venom in a rapid detection system, building on the work of the Warwick research group using a glyconanoparticle platform in COVID-19 detection. The new assay is faster, cheaper, and easier to store, making it a more practical solution for treating snake bites.

The University of Warwick’s STEM Connect programme has enabled this innovative research, demonstrating the potential for bold and innovative solutions in addressing global health challenges.

Animals

Deep-Sea Fish Make a Big Splash in Carbon Cycle Research

Mesopelagic fish, long overlooked in ocean chemistry, are now proven to excrete carbonate minerals much like their shallow-water counterparts—despite living in dark, high-pressure depths. Using the deep-dwelling blackbelly rosefish, researchers have demonstrated that carbonate production is consistent across ocean layers, bolstering global carbon cycle models. These findings reveal that these abundant fish play a hidden but crucial role in regulating Earth’s ocean chemistry and could reshape how we understand deep-sea contributions to climate processes.

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Deep-sea fish have long been a mystery, but new research is shedding light on their importance in Earth’s carbon cycle. Scientists at the University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science have discovered that deep-dwelling mesopelagic fish, which account for up to 94% of global fish biomass, excrete carbonate minerals at rates comparable to shallow-water species.

The study focused on the blackbelly rosefish (Helicolenus dactylopterus), a deep-sea species living at depths of 350-430 meters. The researchers found that these fish form and excrete intestinal carbonate, also known as ichthyocarbonate, which helps maintain internal salt and water balance in saline environments. This process plays a critical role in marine carbon cycling.

The study’s lead author, Martin Grosell, explained that it was unclear whether mesopelagic fish produced carbonate like shallow-water fish do or at what rate. However, the research confirms that they do produce carbonate at rates similar to those of shallow-water species. The blackbelly rosefish was found to excrete approximately 5 milligrams of ichthyocarbonate per kilogram per hour, aligning with predictions from thermal and metabolic scaling models.

This study fills a major gap in our understanding of ocean chemistry and carbon cycling. With mesopelagic fish playing such a significant role, their contribution to carbonate flux – and how it might change with warming oceans – deserves greater attention. The findings also underscore the importance of ichthyocarbonate in the ocean carbon cycle, especially given the vast, underexplored biomass of the mesopelagic zone.

The study’s authors say that these results offer strong support for global models of fish-derived carbonate production, which had assumed but not verified that mesopelagic species contribute at similar rates. Mesopelagic fish aren’t just prey; they’re chemical engineers of the ocean.

This research opens new avenues for studying deep-sea carbon dynamics and may improve Earth system models, which are sophisticated computer models that incorporate interactions between physical, chemical, and biological processes, such as biological carbon production and export. The study was published in the Journal of Experimental Biology on July 15, 2025.

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Animals

“From Millipede Secretions to Human Pain Relief — A New Path for Drug Discovery”

Millipedes, often dismissed as creepy crawlies, may hold the secret to future painkillers and neurological drugs. Researchers at Virginia Tech discovered unique alkaloid compounds in the defensive secretions of a native millipede species. These complex molecules, which cause disorientation in ants, interact with human neuroreceptors linked to pain and cognition. By decoding these natural chemical defenses, scientists could open a new path toward innovative drug therapies, though challenges remain in producing the compounds at scale.

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The discovery of new compounds in millipede secretions has opened up exciting possibilities for drug development and the treatment of neurological diseases. A team led by chemist Emily Mevers has found complex structures in these secretions that can modulate specific neuroreceptors in ant brains, leading to disorientation in the ants.

These newly discovered structures, called alkaloids, fall into a class of naturally occurring compounds that have been studied for their potential pharmacological applications. The Mevers team named them andrognathanols and andrognathines after the millipede species, Andrognathus corticarius, found on Virginia Tech’s Blacksburg campus.

Mevers’ research focuses on leveraging the chemistry of underexplored ecological niches, such as the millipede, for drug discovery. Her team collected millipedes from Stadium Woods and used various analytical tools to identify the compounds contained in their defensive glands. These secretions are released by the millipedes to ward off predators while also sharing their location with their kin.

The broader implications of this research are significant, as much about millipedes remains mysterious, including their specific habitats, numbers, diets, behaviors, and chemistry. Mevers is collaborating with millipede expert Paul Marek in the entomology department to fill in these gaps and explore potential applications for future medications.

In a previous study, Mevers and Marek examined a millipede native to the Pacific Northwest and discovered that related alkaloids interacted potently and selectively with the Sigma-1 neuroreceptor. This interaction suggested that this family of compounds may have useful pharmacological potential for treating pain and other neurological disorders.

The new alkaloids discovered in this study are actively secreted from the Hokie millipede when it is physically disturbed, causing disorientation in ants, a presumed natural predator. A subset of these compounds possesses similar interactions with the Sigma-1 neuroreceptor, further supporting their potential for drug development.

With these complex compounds in hand, the next step is to synthesize them in larger quantities and evaluate their biomedical applications. According to Mevers, “These compounds are quite complex, so they’re going to take some time to synthesize in the lab.” Once larger quantities are available, Mevers will be able to better study their properties and potential in drug development, potentially leading to new treatments for human pain relief.

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Animals

Rewriting the Spider Origin Story: A 500-Million-Year-Old Fossil Reveals Oceanic Arachnid Evolution

Half a billion years ago, a strange sea-dwelling creature called Mollisonia symmetrica may have paved the way for modern spiders. Using detailed fossil brain analysis, researchers uncovered neural patterns strikingly similar to today’s arachnids—suggesting spiders evolved in the ocean, not on land as previously believed. This brain structure even hints at a critical evolutionary leap that allowed spiders their infamous speed, dexterity, and web-spinning prowess. The findings challenge long-held assumptions about arachnid origins and may even explain why insects took to the skies: to escape their relentless, silk-spinning predators.

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The scientific community has long believed that spiders and their close kin evolved on land, but a new analysis of an exquisitely preserved fossil from 500 million years ago suggests otherwise. Researchers have discovered that these arachnids actually originated in the ocean, challenging the widely held assumption that their diversification occurred only after their common ancestor had conquered the land.

The study, led by Nicholas Strausfeld at the University of Arizona, analyzed the brain and central nervous system of an extinct animal called Mollisonia symmetrica. This ancient creature outwardly resembled some other early chelicerates from the Cambrian period, with a broad rounded carapace in the front and a sturdy segmented trunk ending in a tail-like structure. However, what Strausfeld and his colleagues found was that the neural arrangements in Mollisonia’s fossilized brain were not organized like those in horseshoe crabs, as could be expected, but instead were organized the same way as they are in modern spiders and their relatives.

The unique organization of the mollisoniid brain, which is the reverse of the front-to-back arrangement found in present-day crustaceans, insects, and centipedes, and even horseshoe crabs, is a crucial evolutionary development. Studies of existing spider brains suggest that this back-to-front arrangement provides shortcuts from neuronal control centers to underlying circuits that coordinate a spider’s repertoire of movements. This arrangement likely confers stealth in hunting, rapidity in pursuit, and exquisite dexterity for the spinning of webs to entrap prey.

The discovery of Mollisonia symmetrica as an arachnid ancestor has significant implications for our understanding of evolution. According to Strausfeld, it is still vigorously debated where and when arachnids first appeared, and what kind of chelicerates were their ancestors. The findings suggest that a Mollisonia-like arachnid may have become adapted to terrestrial life, making early insects and millipedes its daily diet.

The first creatures to come onto land were probably millipede-like arthropods and some ancestral insect-like creatures, an evolutionary branch of crustaceans. It is possible that these early terrestrial animals contributed to the evolution of a critical defense mechanism: insect wings, hence flight and escape.

Despite their aerial mobility, insects are still caught in millions in exquisite silken webs spun by spiders. The study’s findings highlight the complexity and diversity of life on Earth and remind us that even the most seemingly well-understood creatures can hold surprises waiting to be discovered.

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