The Wasatch Fault, stretching 240 miles along the western edge of the Wasatch Mountains from southern Idaho to central Utah, is a seismically active normal fault that has been a concern for residents in the region. Researchers at Utah State University have made significant discoveries about this complex geological feature, shedding light on why earthquakes occur along the Wasatch Fault and why communities are more vulnerable to earthquake damage than previously thought.

“Normal faults are observed along different tectonic systems, where the tectonic plates are moving apart,” explains geophysicist Srisharan Shreedharan. “The Wasatch Fault forms the eastern edge of the Basin and Range geologic province, which has stretched and broken over millions of years.”

Shreedharan and his team, including Associate Professor Alexis Ault and doctoral student Jordan Jensen, have conducted extensive research on the Wasatch Fault, using rock samples collected from the fault to analyze its properties. Their findings, published in the April 25 online edition of Geology, reveal significant clues about the earthquake risk associated with this geological feature.

One key discovery is that while the Wasatch Fault dips sharply at Salt Lake City, it curves more gently at depth as it moves west and is probably oriented at a much shallower angle at earthquake depth than expected. This means that an earthquake rupture could lead to stronger, more intense shaking at the surface, increasing the likelihood of injury and destruction.

The researchers also found that earthquake slip is possible along the shallowly dipping portion of the Wasatch Fault because the fault rocks themselves are much weaker – worn down and slicker – than the surrounding, undamaged rock. This weak frictional behavior, characterized through deformation experiments and microscopy, is a product of deformation that happened more than 1.7 billion years ago when what is now the Wasatch Fault was at even greater depths within the Earth.

Understanding these findings can help communities along the Wasatch Fault prepare for potential earthquakes and take steps to mitigate damage. As Ault notes, “USU, with its interdisciplinary team of earthquake scientists and engineers, is uniquely positioned to study Utah’s earthquake history, future risks, and help build resilience.”

The research conducted by Shreedharan and his team serves as a reminder of the importance of understanding geological phenomena like earthquakes, which can have devastating consequences for communities. By shedding light on these complex processes, researchers can provide valuable insights that inform policies and practices aimed at reducing earthquake risk and promoting community resilience.

The scientific community has long sought to understand the enigmatic origins of consciousness. A recent landmark experiment has taken us one step closer to unraveling this mystery. Conducted by researchers from the Allen Institute, this collaborative effort brought together 256 human subjects and two prominent theories: Integrated Information Theory (IIT) and Global Neuronal Workspace Theory (GNWT).

According to IIT, consciousness emerges when information inside a system (like the brain) is highly connected and unified. In contrast, GNWT suggests that consciousness arises from a network of brain areas spotlighting important pieces of information in the brain, broadcasting it widely when it enters consciousness.

The findings of this experiment de-emphasize the importance of the prefrontal cortex in consciousness, suggesting that while it’s crucial for reasoning and planning, consciousness itself may be linked with sensory processing and perception. This discovery has significant implications for our understanding of consciousness and may shed light on disorders such as comas or vegetative states.

The study involved a highly collaborative approach, bringing together researchers from diverse backgrounds to test these two competing theories in a critical environment aimed at reducing confirmation bias and accelerating scientific progress. While neither theory emerged victorious, the findings remain valuable, providing new insights into both theories and the brain’s processing of visual experience.

As Christof Koch, Ph.D., meritorious investigator at the Allen Institute, noted, “Unravelling this mystery is the passion of my entire life.” This experiment marks a pivotal moment in our pursuit to understand the elusive origins of consciousness, and its implications will undoubtedly continue to shape our understanding of human perception and thought.

The origins of wealth inequality date back further than we often think. According to a groundbreaking study led by Washington State University archaeologist Tim Kohler, disparities in wealth began to emerge more than 10,000 years ago, long before the rise of empires or the invention of writing. This research, published in a special issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, challenges traditional views that inequality suddenly appeared with large civilizations like Egypt or Mesopotamia.

By analyzing data from over 47,000 residential structures across 1,100 archaeological sites worldwide, researchers used house sizes as a measure of wealth. The analysis revealed that wealth inequality started to increase roughly 1,500 years after the advent of agriculture in different civilizations across the world. This effect was driven by population growth, competition for land, and the development of hierarchical settlements.

“Wealth inequality took root surprisingly early,” Kohler said. “The shift wasn’t instantaneous; it grew gradually as societies expanded, populations increased, and resources became more constrained.” The study highlights several key factors contributing to this phenomenon:

1. Land scarcity: As farming communities grew, land became a finite resource, leading to competition and innovations like terracing and irrigation to boost productivity.
2. Larger settlements: These hubs of economic and political activity concentrated wealth in the hands of a few households.
3. Population density: High population settlements exhibited greater inequality than smaller communities.

One significant revelation is that wealth inequality predates written records, with evidence showing disparities existed even in the earliest agricultural societies. By applying the Gini coefficient – a standard measure of inequality – to ancient house sizes, researchers discovered that early farming villages were relatively egalitarian. However, as settlements became larger and more complex, economic disparities grew.

The study also challenges the idea that preindustrial societies lived in a “Malthusian world” of subsistence-level existence. Instead, Kohler and his team found evidence of steady wealth accumulation and technological advancements over millennia. Early agricultural societies often modified their landscapes to intensify production, which increased productivity but widened the gap between those who controlled resources and those who did not.

Some innovations, like iron smelting, reduced inequality by increasing access to tools and resources for lower social strata, challenging the assumption that technological advances always benefit elites. Kohler noted that other factors, such as large governing systems or collaborative social networks, also played a role in mitigating or amplifying inequality over time.

“This isn’t just a modern problem,” Kohler said. “Understanding the origins of wealth inequality helps us see it as a persistent challenge that societies have been grappling with for thousands of years. The past has much to teach us about navigating these issues today.”

The study was a collaborative effort involving 27 researchers from institutions worldwide and was coordinated by the Coalition for Archaeological Synthesis, a not-for-profit organization dedicated to synthesizing the archaeological record to advance science and benefit society. By focusing on the period before written records, the researchers hope to fill a critical gap in understanding how human societies evolved, from egalitarian hunter-gatherer groups to complex, hierarchical communities.

“These patterns are deeply embedded in our history,” Kohler said. “But by studying them, we can better address their implications for the future. If we can understand how inequality emerged and evolved, perhaps we can learn how to mitigate its impact today.”